Global warming, climate change, all these things are just a dream come true for politicians. I deal with evidence and not with frightening computer models because the seeker after truth does not put his faith in any consensus. The road to the truth is long and hard, but this is the road we must follow. People who describe the unprecedented comfort and ease of modern life as a climate disaster, in my opinion have no idea what a real problem is.
Glacier archaeologist Marcel Cornelissen describes glaciers as “treasure troves”. As they melt, artifacts emerge on the surface (rather than being deeply buried), giving unique insights into the past. Finds are increasing with accelerated ice loss. Researchers are often alerted by mountaineers who spot objects, then document, stabilize, and transport them for laboratory analysis and dating.
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Switzerland’s melting glaciers are revealing ancient secrets, according to an article published on October 2, 2026, by SWI swissinfo.ch.
Glacier archaeologist Marcel Cornelissen describes glaciers as “treasure troves”. As they melt, artifacts emerge on the surface (rather than being deeply buried), giving unique insights into the past. Finds are increasing with accelerated ice loss. Researchers are often alerted by mountaineers who spot objects, then document, stabilize, and transport them for laboratory analysis and dating.
Notable discoveries
Bronze Age weapons (including a bow and arrowheads from the Lötschen Pass on the Bern-Valais border)
Ancient animal remains (such as a cow’s skull)
A small Roman statue
A rosary
Other items linked to Mesolithic rock crystal extraction and use
Some of these appear in an exhibition at the Glacier Garden in Lucerne. Cornelissen is involved in the “Bergeis” project at the Uri Institute Cultures of the Alps and is especially interested in reconstructing daily life from thousands of years ago (e.g., hunting, protecting livestock, or possible conflicts).
The urgency
Glacial ice acts as a major archaeological archive that is disappearing rapidly.
Related reporting notes that about a fifth of Swiss Alpine ice has vanished in five years, with 2026 heatwaves and low winter snowfall accelerating the loss of dozens of glaciers.
Cornelissen warns that “a great deal of archaeological knowledge is being lost”, as future analytical methods may arrive too late for much of the remaining ice.
The piece is a short (~3- minute) feature translated from German, focusing on the race to document these finds before they are gone.
“Bergeis” (Mountain Ice) is a research and public archaeology project at the Uri Institute Cultures of the Alps (Urner Institut Kulturen der Alpen and Institut Kulturen der Alpen), an affiliated institute of the University of Lucerne based in Altdorf, Canton Uri, Switzerland.
Focus and goals
It investigates the extraction, processing, and use of rock crystal (Bergkristall and quartz) by Mesolithic hunter- gatherer societies in the Swiss Alps (primarily Cantons Uri and Valais), roughly 8000/7000- 5800 BC. The project examines how people sourced and worked this material at high altitudes, its societal value, and the broader environmental and climatic context (including past and present glacier dynamics).
A key site is a rock- crystal extraction fissure near the Untere Stremlücke and Fuorcla da Strem Sut (around 2817- 2831 m), exposed by the retreating Brunnifirn glacier (Oberalpstock area).
Discovered in 2013 by a crystal hunter (“Strahler”), it yielded:
Rock- crystal tools, manufacturing waste, and knapping debris
Rare organic remains preserved in the ice (antler artefacts and wood fragments, the oldest ice-preserved organic finds known in the Alps at the time)
This is described as the first securely dated Mesolithic glacial rock-crystal extraction site in the Swiss Alps. The project also studies related assemblages elsewhere in Uri and Valais and includes further field surveys (in collaboration with cantonal archaeological services).
Dual aims:
Scientific research into alpine Mesolithic life, raw- material procurement, and the deep history of crystal hunting (“Strahlen”), a tradition that continues in the region.
Public outreach: raising awareness of alpine cultural history, potential glacier/ice-patch finds, and encouraging hikers, mountaineers, crystal hunters, and locals to report discoveries to authorities.
Leadership and timeline
Project lead: Marcel Cornelissen, M.A. (freelance archaeologist and Junior Research Fellow at the institute, specializing in early post-glacial and alpine archaeology). He runs it on a mandate basis.
Official run: approximately January 2021- October 2023 (with related fieldwork, analysis, and outreach continuing; listed as 2021- 24 in some of Cornelissen’s records).
Related activities and outputs
Excavations and surveys (e.g., 2020 work at the Stremlücke site).
Exhibitions such as “Bergeis- Strahlen der Steinzeit” (shown at Talmuseum Ursern in Andermatt and Stockalperschloss in Brig, 2022- 2023/2025), featuring tiny rock- crystal tools, large- format photos by Valentin Luthiger, and documentation of the fieldwork team.
Publications (including a 2022 paper in Norwegian Archaeological Review on the glacially preserved site) and outreach materials such as flyers and brochures
The project sits under the institute’s research focus on “Forms of cultural inscription” and highlights how melting glaciers both reveal and threaten this archaeological archive. It connects prehistoric alpine practices with contemporary mountain culture and climate change.
This is a Science X Dialog piece written by the lead author of the research. It closely follows (and largely reproduces) his earlier “Behind the Paper” post on the Springer Nature Research Communities site. It summarizes the findings of the March 2026 paper in npj Climate and Atmospheric Science.
There is a blog post by Susmit Subhransu Satpathy (PhD student researcher at the IBS Center for Climate Physics) on the Springer Nature Research Communities site. It discusses his team’s research paper published in npj Climate and Atmospheric Science.
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This is a Science X Dialog piece written by the lead author of the research. It closely follows (and largely reproduces) his earlier “Behind the Paper” post on the Springer Nature Research Communities site. It summarizes the findings of the March 2026 paper in npj Climate and Atmospheric Science.
Atmospheric circulation not only drives weather and climate but also carries angular momentum. Shifts in winds or mass distribution allow the atmosphere to exchange momentum with the solid Earth, slightly changing the planet’s rotation rate (and thus the Abstract
Changes in the large-scale atmospheric circulation that regulate Earth’s climate can slow its rotation by increasing the Length of Day (LOD). Using large-ensemble simulations from three global climate models under the SSP3-7.0 scenario, we find that global warming-driven changes in Atmospheric Angular Momentum (AAM) propagate into measurable variations in LOD. These arise from modifications in both the mass and motion components of AAM. As the climate warms, expansion of the Hadley cell, intensification of subtropical jets, and weakening of tropical trade winds enhance the motion of the AAM, while a strengthened westward pressure gradient force associated with mountain torque and weakened surface friction torque indicate a reduced efficiency of momentum exchange with the solid Earth. Together, these processes accelerate the atmosphere and slow Earth’s rotation. By the late 21st century, AAM-driven LOD increases reach 10–18% of the lunar tidal friction trend, highlighting anthropogenic climate change’s role in Earth’s rotational dynamics., or LOD).
Previous work had projected rising Atmospheric Angular Momentum (AAM) under warming, but the dynamical reasons were unclear. Using large- ensemble simulations from three global climate models under a high- emissions scenario, the team found a consistent picture:
The Hadley cell expands poleward
Subtropical jets intensify
Tropical trade winds weaken
Upper- level zonal winds strengthen
These well- known responses to warming systematically increase AAM. At the same time, momentum exchange between the atmosphere and solid Earth weakens (through changes in mountain and friction torques).
The result is a slightly faster -moving atmosphere and a slightly slower- rotating Earth.
By the end of the 21st century, the atmospheric contribution to LOD increase reaches about 10- 18% of the long- term lunar tidal friction trend. Although modest, the signal is systematic (externally forced by anthropogenic warming rather than internal variability) and arises from well- understood circulation changes.
The authors place this in context: tidal friction has long been the dominant long- term driver of rotational slowing, while core- mantle interactions dominate decadal- to- centennial variability. Atmospheric changes represent an additional, climate-driven component.
Climate change is reshaping the fundamental dynamical balance of the Earth system. The atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, and solid Earth are tightly coupled, so changes in one can propagate into others in unexpected ways. Global warming influences Earth beyond the climate system itself.
The weakening of the momentum exchange between the solid Earth and atmosphere through changing mountain and friction torques. Credit: Susmit Subhransu Satpathy
There is a blog post by Susmit Subhransu Satpathy (PhD student researcher at the IBS Center for Climate Physics) on the Springer Nature Research Communities site. It discusses his team’s research paper published in npj Climate and Atmospheric Science.
Key research findings
The paper, Anthropogenic warming- driven atmospheric circulation shifts and angular momentum increase: influence on the Earth’s rotation (Satpathy, Franzke, Yuan, Maher, Park & Lee, 2026), shows that global warming alters atmospheric circulation in ways that increase Atmospheric Angular Momentum (AAM). This accelerates the atmosphere slightly and slows Earth’s rotation, lengthening the day (increasing Length of Day, or LOD).
Using large- ensemble simulations from three climate models (CESM2- LE, ACCESS- ESM- 1.5, and MIROC6) under the high- emissions SSP3- 7.0 scenario, the researchers found:
Circulation changes that boost AAM (especially its motion component):
Poleward expansion of the Hadley cell
Intensification of subtropical jets
Weakening of tropical trade winds
Strengthening of upper- level zonal winds
Weakened momentum exchange between the atmosphere and solid Earth (via changes in mountain and surface friction torques), so the Earth does not “keep up” as efficiently with the faster-moving atmosphere.
By the late 21st century, the AAM- driven LOD increase reaches about 10- 18% of the long- term lunar tidal friction trend (the dominant natural process that has been slowing Earth’s rotation for billions of years). The effect is subtle but systematic and externally forced by anthropogenic warming, not just internal variability.
Broader context
Earth’s rotation rate already fluctuates due to lunar tides, core- mantle interactions, post- glacial rebound, and mass redistribution (e.g., melting ice sheets increasing polar flattening and oblateness). This work isolates the atmospheric contribution as an additional climate- driven signal. Conservation of angular momentum means gains in atmospheric angular momentum are balanced by a corresponding slowing of the solid Earth’s spin.
The blog emphasizes that climate change reshapes fundamental dynamical balances across the Earth system (atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, and solid Earth), producing effects that extend beyond temperature, precipitation, or extremes.
The increasing trend of AAM with global warming. Credit: Susmit Subhransu Satpathy
Anthropogenic warming- driven atmospheric circulation shifts and angular momentum increase: influence on the Earth’s rotation
Changes in the large-scale atmospheric circulation that regulate Earth’s climate can slow its rotation by increasing the Length of Day (LOD).
Using large- ensemble simulations from three global climate models under the SSP3-7.0 scenario, the authors find that global warming- driven changes in Atmospheric Angular Momentum (AAM) propagate into measurable variations in LOD.
These arise from modifications in both the mass and motion components of AAM.
As the climate warms, expansion of the Hadley cell, intensification of subtropical jets, and weakening of tropical trade winds enhance the motion component of AAM, while a strengthened westward pressure gradient force associated with mountain torque and weakened surface friction torque indicate reduced efficiency of momentum exchange with the solid Earth.
Together, these processes accelerate the atmosphere and slow Earth’s rotation. By the late 21st century, AAM- driven LOD increases reach 10- 18% of the lunar tidal friction trend, highlighting anthropogenic climate change’s role in Earth’s rotational dynamics.
Key points from the paper
Background: Earth’s rotation rate (and thus LOD) varies due to core-mantle coupling, lunar tidal friction, post- glacial rebound, and mass redistribution (e.g., melting ice sheets increasing polar oblateness/J₂). AAM consists of a motion term (related to zonal winds) and a mass term (related to surface pressure distribution). Conservation of angular momentum means changes in AAM are balanced by opposite changes in the solid Earth’s spin.
Methods: Analysis of large- ensemble simulations under the high- emissions SSP3-7.0 scenario:
CESM2- LE (100 members)
ACCESS- ESM-1.5 (40 members)
MIROC6 (50 members) These allow separation of externally forced signals from internal variability. Baseline period: 1850- 2014.
Main results:
Both motion and mass components of AAM increase under warming (motion component dominates).
Circulation changes driving higher motion AAM include poleward Hadley cell expansion, stronger subtropical jets, weaker tropical easterlies and trade winds, and stronger upper- level equatorial westerlies (including signs of equatorial upper- tropospheric super-rotation later in the century).
Surface torques weaken, reducing momentum transfer from atmosphere to solid Earth.
Rising AAM translates linearly into increasing LOD anomalies. By late 21st century the atmospheric contribution reaches ~10- 18% of the long- term lunar tidal friction trend (~2.4 ms/century). The magnitude is comparable to effects from ice- sheet melting and oblateness changes.
Rough scaling: ~0.09- 0.11 ms of LOD lengthening per degree of global mean surface temperature rise.
Significance: The atmospheric signal is a systematic, externally forced response to anthropogenic warming. It demonstrates that climate change influences Earth’s rotational dynamics beyond the better- known effects of ice melt and mass redistribution.
The full article (including figures on AAM trends, Hadley cell expansion, torque changes, and LOD projections) is freely available as open access at the link above, with a PDF download option.
Susmit Subhransu Satpathy¹˒², Christian L. E. Franzke¹˒², Naiming Yuan³˒⁴˒⁵, Nicola Maher⁶, Wonsun Park¹˒² & Sun-Seon Lee¹˒⁷¹ Center for Climate Physics, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Busan, Republic of Korea ² Department of Carbon Neutrality and Climate Change, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea ³ School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China ⁴ Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System, Ministry of Education, Zhuhai, China ⁵ Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai, China ⁶ ARC Centre of Excellence for Weather of the 21st Century and Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia ⁷ Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
Changes in the large-scale atmospheric circulation that regulate Earth’s climate can slow its rotation by increasing the Length of Day (LOD). Using large-ensemble simulations from three global climate models under the SSP3-7.0 scenario, we find that global warming-driven changes in Atmospheric Angular Momentum (AAM) propagate into measurable variations in LOD. These arise from modifications in both the mass and motion components of AAM. As the climate warms, expansion of the Hadley cell, intensification of subtropical jets, and weakening of tropical trade winds enhance the motion of the AAM, while a strengthened westward pressure gradient force associated with mountain torque and weakened surface friction torque indicate a reduced efficiency of momentum exchange with the solid Earth. Together, these processes accelerate the atmosphere and slow Earth’s rotation. By the late 21st century, AAM-driven LOD increases reach 10–18% of the lunar tidal friction trend, highlighting anthropogenic climate change’s role in Earth’s rotational dynamics.
A “spotlight” article posted by Asia Nikkei claims climate change is destroying Indonesian coffee crop, a major agricultural export for the country. Fortunately for Indonesian coffee producers and the Indonesian economy, this it flat out false.
In fact, Indonesia’s most recent production record was set in 2024, with the previous record having been set in 2021. With just two years of modest declines, Indonesia’s coffee yields increased eight of the past 10 years.
A “spotlight” article posted by Asia Nikkei claims climate change is destroying Indonesian coffee crop, a major agricultural export for the country. Fortunately for Indonesian coffee producers and the Indonesian economy, this it flat out false. Amid modest warming over the past century and a half, Indonesia’s coffee production and yields have increased dramatically, regularly setting new records for production.
Fathiya Dahrul, the author of the of the Asia Nikkei story, “Indonesia coffee trade wilts under brunt of climate change,” writes, “[i]n southern Sumatra, the cost of global warming stares Rusi Siruadi in the face as he surveys the stunted trees on his coffee farm.”
“On a plot of land, a little bigger than a soccer field, Siruadi expects his robusta bean crop to shrivel by nearly a third from last year’s level once harvesting is wrapped up in late September,” Dahrul continues. “Robusta beans, often used to manufacture instant coffee, account for 80% to 90% of the crop across Indonesia, one of the world’s top five coffee producers.
“The culprit, Siruadi told Nikkei Asia, is the kind of extreme, erratic rainfall Indonesia has seen since last year,” Dahrul says. “Scientists attribute those weather patterns to human-induced climate change.”
The first clear error in this story is its author attributing a single year’s bad weather to climate change. While this one coffee producer, or even coffee growers across some or all of Indonesia, may have suffered crop losses due to weather in 2026, that, as meteorologist Anthony Watts points out in Climate at a Glance: Weather Vs. Climate, is a symptom of weather, not necessarily indicative of long-term climate change for the region. Farmers have always suffered good and bad years and even, on occasion, multiple good and bad weather years back-to-back, hurting or boosting crop production in the short-term.
To show that a year’s weather is associated with climate change, one would have to find a long-term consistent trend in the type of weather of concern. That is not what we find in Indonesia, however. Indonesia historically has experienced wet and dry monsoon seasons, and this hasn’t changed in recent decades. Indonesian agriculture relies upon the monsoon. Some years are wetter than others and some dryer. But the trend over time is that the monsoons arrive and provide the moisture Indonesia needs for crop production. This has not changed.
And Indonesia’s coffee production trend since 2000 shows substantial growth rather than a decline. Data from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show that Indonesia’s coffee production and yields have, if anything, benefitted from modestly warmer temperatures, more consistent precipitation, and carbon dioxide fertilization. Specifically, from 2000 through 2024, the last year for which Indonesia has reported agricultural data, supposedly the hottest decades on record:
Indonesia’s coffee yields increased by approximately 45 percent; and
Indonesia’s coffee production grew by nearly 46 percent. (See the figure, below)
In fact, Indonesia’s most recent production record was set in 2024, with the previous record having been set in 2021. With just two years of modest declines, Indonesia’s coffee yields increased eight of the past 10 years. In short, whatever the coffee growers interviewed by Asia Nikkei have experienced and may believe, there is no evidence in the data that climate change is causing coffee to “wilt,” or is harming coffee production in general. Anecdotal evidence from interviews with a few growers concerning a single year’s crop output can’t put to lie the long-term data.
Had the mainstream media not been falsely blaming climate change for nearly every bad weather event over the past 30 years, I would wager that if those same farmers had been interviewed during a year of high heat and or erratic rainfall in 1994, for example, they would not have blamed climate change for any resultant crop failures. Rather, they likely would have said it was the vagaries of the weather, representing ups and downs that they had known throughout their years of farming.
In the end, the data suggests that Indonesia’s coffee growers have been benefitting from modest climate change, not suffering. Somehow Asia Nikkei, failed to get the memo. Its writers and fact checkers need to wake up to the existence of real-world long-term data before penning and allowing false stories to be posted about a climate disaster that isn’t in evidence.
The Climate Alliance coalition of Democrat Governors recently featured a new Illinois “affordability” law which is actually the opposite. This is a good example of the Alliance’s anti- affordability policies.
Keep in mind that the idea of “affordability” refers to alleviating today’s escalating energy costs, especially electricity bills. In stark contrast, this bill is claimed to save electricity users a lot of money over the next 20 years or so, but it only does so at great expense today. So, it is an anti-affordability law.
Business woman refusing to take bribe. Female at desk and money on table.
The Climate Alliance coalition of Democrat Governors recently featured a new Illinois “affordability” law which is actually the opposite. This is a good example of the Alliance’s anti- affordability policies.
The reported and claimed name of this new law is the “Clean and Reliable Grid Affordability Act (CRGA)”. That is what the Governor’s press release and news reports call it. The official name however is hilarious. The bill is here and is clearly labeled the “SWIMMING FACILITY COLD SPA” law.
Apparently, the Democrat controlled Legislature took a rule-avoiding shortcut. They took this little swimming pool bill, which was already well along, stripped it of its text and added a monster 1,200-page energy bill, then quickly passed the critter.
In any case, this is not an affordability law — quite the contrary — and this speaks to the Climate Alliance’s entire policy posture.
Keep in mind that the idea of “affordability” refers to alleviating today’s escalating energy costs, especially electricity bills. In stark contrast, this bill is claimed to save electricity users a lot of money over the next 20 years or so, but it only does so at great expense today. So, it is an anti- affordability law.
Here is how the Governor’s press release puts it:
“CRGA will lower costs by driving the development of new energy resources, enacting new regulatory powers to support consumers, and creating and enhancing consumer cost-saving programs. The Illinois Power Agency (IPA) found that CRGA’s critical measures are expected to save Illinois energy customers $13.4 billion over the next two decades.”
These supposedly lower future costs come at the usual huge present day green costs. The biggest cost drivers are lots of renewables, batteries, and efficiency programs, all paid for by suffering ratepayers.
There is also lots of electrification and EV stuff, plus “environmental justice,” and so on — the whole big green ball of money.
They do lift the ban on nuclear power, which is good news since Illinois used to be a leader on this. But it saves nobody anything in the near future.
Here is the “affordability” fantasy made clear: “We’re making it easier to develop renewable energy,” bill sponsor Sen. Bill Cunningham, D-Chicago, said at the signing ceremony. “We’re going to deploy battery storage; we’re lifting the nuclear moratorium. That’s all going to bring more supply onto the grid, and that will help hold the line on our electrical bills.”
Spending untold billions of dollars on renewables, batteries, and new nukes (if ever) is not going to “hold the line” on electrical bills.
Batteries in particular are incredibly expensive to buy and provide no new supply. They just make money for their owners by buying low off peak and selling high on peak. In fact, they consume energy in this expensive arbitrage process.
A law like this that is certain to drive up electricity bills can best be described as anti- affordability. It is just more hugely expensive energy transition nonsense.
The Climate Alliance boasts that they have over 4,000 laws, executive orders, and related policy documents from their member States in their policy database.
These are basically the “blue states,” and if anti-affordability Illinois CRGA is representative of these over 4,000 mandates, then it is no wonder these state’s electricity prices are far greater than in the other states. The so- called energy transition is driving up people’s bills.
People in blue states suffering from exorbitant electric bills need look no further than the U.S. Climate Coalition to see what is hitting them. Anti- affordability is the policy.
The Hittites were an ancient Indo- European people who established a major Bronze Age civilization and empire in Anatolia (modern- day Türkiye) from roughly the 17th to the early 12th century BCE. They were one of the great powers of the Late Bronze Age Near East, rivaling Egypt, Mitanni, Babylon, and Assyria. Their language is the oldest attested Indo- European language.
Hattusa (also spelled Hattuša, Hattusas, or Hattusha; Turkish: Hattuşaş) was the capital of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age. Its extensive ruins lie near the modern village of Boğazkale (formerly Boğazköy) in Çorum Province, north- central Türkiye, about 150- 210 km east of Ankara, within the great bend of the Kızılırmak River (ancient Marashantiya/Halys).
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The Hittites were an ancient Indo- European people who established a major Bronze Age civilization and empire in Anatolia (modern- day Türkiye) from roughly the 17th to the early 12th century BCE. They were one of the great powers of the Late Bronze Age Near East, rivaling Egypt, Mitanni, Babylon, and Assyria. Their language is the oldest attested Indo- European language.
They did not call themselves “Hittites.” That name comes from the biblical Hebrew term for the land of Hatti (central Anatolia).
In their own records they referred to their realm as the Land of Hatti. They absorbed and blended with earlier local populations, especially the non- Indo- European Hattians (whose language and many cultural elements they adopted), as well as Luwians and Hurrians.
Origins and Early History
Speakers of an Indo- European language (related to later languages such as English, Greek, and Sanskrit) appear to have entered Anatolia by the early 2nd millennium BCE, possibly from regions north of the Black Sea. Early polities included the kingdom of Kussara and the city of Kanesh/Neša (modern Kültepe), an important Assyrian trading colony site.
The Hittite state proper began around 1650 BCE when Hattusili I (or Labarna) made Hattusa (modern Boğazkale/Boğazköy, about 150- 200 km east of Ankara) the capital. The city, set in a rugged, defensible highland basin, became the political, religious, and administrative heart of the kingdom for centuries.
Scholars conventionally divide Hittite history into:
Old Kingdom (c. 1650- 1500/1400 BCE)
A poorly documented Middle Kingdom or interregnum
New Kingdom / Empire (c. 1400- c. 1180 BCE)
The Old Kingdom
Early kings expanded control across central Anatolia and into northern Syria. Notable rulers include:
Hattusili I (c. 1650- 1620 BCE): Consolidated power and established Hattusa.
Mursili I (c. 1620- 1590 BCE): Conducted a dramatic raid down the Euphrates that sacked Babylon around 1595 BCE, ending the Amorite dynasty there. The Hittites could not hold distant Mesopotamian territories.
Dynastic struggles and weak succession followed. King Telipinu issued an edict attempting to regulate royal succession and stabilize the state.
The Empire Period (New Kingdom)
The empire reached its height in the 14th-13th centuries BCE. Key rulers:
Suppiluliuma I (c. 1344-1322 BCE): The greatest Hittite conqueror. He destroyed the Mitanni kingdom, established firm control over northern Syria, and placed vassal kings (including his own sons) in key cities such as Carchemish and Aleppo. The empire then stretched across most of Anatolia, northern Syria, and parts of Upper Mesopotamia.
Muwatalli II (c. 1295-1272 BCE): Fought the famous Battle of Kadesh (c. 1274 BCE) against the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. One of the largest chariot battles in history, it ended in a tactical stalemate; both sides claimed victory.
Hattusili III (c. 1267-1237 BCE): Negotiated the world’s oldest known surviving international peace treaty with Egypt (c. 1259 BCE). The parity treaty established mutual non-aggression, defensive alliance, and extradition provisions; copies survive in both Hittite and Egyptian versions. A dynastic marriage followed.
Later kings faced growing pressure from Assyria, internal rivals, the Kaska tribes to the north, and western Anatolian states.
Society, Culture, and Achievements
Language and Writing: Hittite (Nesite) was written in cuneiform on clay tablets. Archives at Hattusa contain tens of thousands of tablets covering laws, treaties, rituals, myths, correspondence, and administration, many in multiple languages (Hittite, Akkadian, Hurrian, Hattic, Luwian). Hieroglyphic Luwian was also used, especially on monuments. Bedřich Hrozný deciphered Hittite in 1915, proving it Indo- European.
Law and Administration: A sophisticated legal code existed. Kings ruled as divine representatives but relied heavily on treaties with vassals, a system of oaths, and delegated authority suited to Anatolia’s fragmented geography.
Military: Famous for three- man chariots and effective use of iron technology (though widespread iron use came later). They maintained professional armies and extensive fortifications.
Religion: Highly polytheistic and inclusive, “the Land of a Thousand Gods”. They readily incorporated deities of conquered or neighboring peoples (Hattian, Hurrian, Mesopotamian). Major gods included the Storm God of Hatti (Tarhunt and or Teshub) and the Sun Goddess of Arinna. The capital contained numerous temples; the king performed important ritual roles. Rock sanctuaries such as Yazılıkaya feature elaborate processions of deities.
Architecture and Art: Monumental stone walls, gates (Lion Gate, Sphinx Gate), temples, and rock reliefs. Hattusa was a large, planned city with upper and lower sections, reservoirs, and sophisticated defenses.
Decline and Collapse
Around 1200-1180 BCE the empire disintegrated as part of the broader Late Bronze Age collapse. Hattusa was largely abandoned (and later burned); the royal archives cease. Contributing factors appear to have included:
Prolonged severe drought (tree- ring evidence points to multi- year droughts around 1198-1196 BCE that devastated grain harvests)
Internal dynastic strife and loss of central control
Attacks by the Kaska and other groups
Pressure from migrating peoples (including those associated with the “Sea Peoples” in Egyptian records)
Economic disruption and plague
The Hittite language and cuneiform tradition disappeared from central Anatolia. Successor “Neo- Hittite” (or Syro- Hittite) states continued in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria (e.g., Carchemish) into the Iron Age until conquered by the Assyrians in the 8th- 7th centuries BCE. Biblical references to Hittites generally refer to these later groups or to residual populations in Canaan.
Legacy and Rediscovery
Forgotten for nearly three millennia except for brief biblical mentions, the Hittites were rediscovered through archaeology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Excavations at Hattusa (begun systematically by German teams in 1906 under Hugo Winckler and continuing today) revealed the capital’s scale and the vast tablet archives. The site is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Hittites demonstrated sophisticated diplomacy, legal innovation, multi-ethnic administration, and military power in a challenging highland environment. Their peace treaty with Egypt remains one of the earliest examples of formal international diplomacy, and their Indo- European language provides crucial evidence for historical linguistics.
Hattusa (also spelled Hattuša, Hattusas, or Hattusha; Turkish: Hattuşaş) was the capital of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age. Its extensive ruins lie near the modern village of Boğazkale (formerly Boğazköy) in Çorum Province, north- central Türkiye, about 150- 210 km east of Ankara, within the great bend of the Kızılırmak River (ancient Marashantiya/Halys).
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (inscribed 1986) recognized for its urban organization, monumental fortifications, temples, royal residences, sculptured gates, and the nearby Yazılıkaya rock sanctuary.
Historical Overview
Settlement at the site dates back to the Chalcolithic period (as early as the 6th millennium BCE), with continuous occupation through the Bronze Age. In the early 2nd millennium BCE, it was a Hattian town (called Hattush). Around the mid- 18th century BCE, the Hittite king Anitta of Kussara conquered and destroyed it, placing a curse on the site.
It was reoccupied and became the permanent capital around 1650 BCE under Hattusili I (who took his throne name meaning “man of Hattusa”), shifting the center of power from earlier cities such as Neša and Kanesh. It remained the main political, administrative, and religious capital for most of the empire’s history (with temporary relocations, such as under Muwatalli II to Tarhuntassa and earlier under Tudhaliya III to Samuha).
At its peak in the 14th-13th centuries BCE (especially under Suppiluliuma I and later kings), the city covered roughly 1.8 km² (about 440 acres or 180 hectares). Estimates of population range up to 40,000-50,000. It consisted of:
An inner and lower city (c. 0.8 km²) with the royal citadel, major temples, and administrative buildings.
An outer and upper city with additional temples, residences, and monumental gates.
The city was gradually abandoned around 1200-1180 BCE during the Late Bronze Age collapse, as the Hittite Empire disintegrated. Evidence points to a methodical evacuation by the royal administration and elites rather than a sudden violent conquest; the city was later burned. Contributing factors included severe multi- year droughts (tree- ring data indicate extreme dryness around 1198-1196 BCE), famine, internal instability, and external pressures. Sparse post- Hittite settlement followed.
Layout and Major Features
Hattusa occupied a rugged, elevated plateau (around 1,100 m) with natural defenses of steep ridges and valleys. Key elements include:
Fortifications: Massive double walls (casemate construction) totaling 6- 8 km in length, following the terrain in a zigzag pattern. Built or expanded especially under Suppiluliuma I (c. 1344- 1322 BCE). Sections reached 8 m or more in height. A reconstructed stretch of mud- brick wall (using traditional materials) helps visualize the original appearance.
Monumental Gates:
Lion Gate (southwest): Famous pair of large stone lions (or lion-sphinxes) carved in high relief, facing outward as guardians.
King’s Gate (east): Features a warrior- God relief (originally interpreted as a king; now seen as a deity, possibly the war god).
Sphinx Gate (south, on the Yerkapı rampart): Originally had four sphinxes (some now in museums; replicas on site).
Yerkapı (“Earth Gate”): An artificial embankment with a long (c. 70- 71 m) stone-lined postern tunnel that visitors can still walk through.
Büyükkale (“Great Fortress”): The royal citadel and palace complex on the highest peak, containing administrative buildings, archives, and residential quarters of the king.
Great Temple (Temple 1) in the Lower City: The largest known Hittite temple complex (roughly 65 × 42 m or more, covering thousands of square meters). Dedicated primarily to the Storm God of Hatti and the Sun Goddess of Arinna. It included storage magazines with enormous pithoi (storage jars). A notable large green stone (possibly a cult object or base) is associated with the temple area.
Upper City temples: Multiple additional temples (at least four major ones) arranged around courtyards.
Yazılıkaya: An open- air rock sanctuary about 1- 2 km northeast of the main city. It features elaborate processional reliefs of Hittite (and Hurrian- influenced) deities, kings, and mythological scenes carved into natural rock chambers. It likely served major religious ceremonies.
Other features include water reservoirs, workshops, residential areas, and outlying fortresses (e.g., Kayalıboğaz).
Archives and Discoveries
Excavations have yielded more than 30,000 cuneiform clay tablets and fragments (the Boğazköy Archive). These form the primary source for Hittite history, law, diplomacy (including the Egyptian peace treaty after Kadesh), religion, mythology, and administration. Tablets appear in Hittite, Akkadian, Hurrian, Hattic, Luwian, and other languages. Recent finds include a previously unknown Indo-European language linked to the region of Kalašma.
Archaeology and Modern Site
French explorer Charles Texier first drew attention to the ruins in 1834. Systematic excavations began in 1906 under the German Oriental Society (Hugo Winckler) and have continued, primarily under the German Archaeological Institute (currently directed by Andreas Schachner). Work is ongoing (reaching the 120th season in recent years) and involves multidisciplinary teams. The site remains an active dig and open- air museum.
Visitors can explore the extensive ruins, reconstructed wall sections, gates, temples, and Yazılıkaya. The surrounding landscape of rocky hills and valleys still conveys the dramatic setting chosen by the Hittites for their highland capital.
Hattusa stands as the best-preserved and most informative capital of a major Late Bronze Age Near Eastern empire, providing unique insight into Hittite urbanism, religion, and statecraft.
Hattusa (near modern Boğazkale in Çorum Province, north- central Türkiye) sits on the high central Anatolian plateau at roughly 1,000- 1,250 meters elevation. Its climate is continental and semi- arid, both in the present day and, with some variations, during the Hittite period (c. 1650- 1180 BCE).
Modern Climate
Central Anatolia experiences a classic continental climate influenced by surrounding mountain ranges (Pontus to the north, Taurus to the south):
Hot, dry summers: Daytime highs often reach 30- 31°C in July- August, with very little rainfall (August averages around 10 mm).
Cold winters: January daytime averages around 3°C, with nights frequently dropping to –5°C or lower; snow is common and can persist on higher ground for weeks.
Precipitation: Annual totals are relatively low, typically 550- 600 mm, concentrated in winter and spring (highest in December, around 80 mm). Summers are the driest period.
Seasonal pattern: Short, vibrant springs with wildflowers; crisp, clear autumns; limited possibilities for extensive artificial irrigation due to the terrain and water sources.
Average annual temperatures are around 11°C overall. The landscape is steppe- like with limited forest cover today, though pollen and other evidence suggest denser woodlands existed in earlier periods before human impact (including Hittite- era deforestation for construction, fuel, and agriculture).
These conditions support one main annual harvest in good years, primarily of grains, making the region vulnerable to rainfall variability.
Ancient Climate and Impacts on the Hittites
Paleoclimate data (especially pollen analyses) indicate that overall climatic conditions in central Anatolia have remained broadly similar for the last ~12,000 years since the end of the last Ice Age, continental and semi- arid, with limited rainfall. However, there were significant short- term fluctuations.
The Hittite core territory around Hattusa depended heavily on rain- fed agriculture (wheat, barley) and animal husbandry. The empire developed resilience strategies, including grain storage, taxation systems, and redistribution from more productive areas, which allowed it to survive ordinary single- year droughts(which occurred regularly).
Key climate impact — the severe multi-year drought of c. 1198–1196 BCE:
A landmark 2023 study published in Nature analyzed tree- ring widths and stable carbon isotope (δ¹³C) records from ancient juniper trees recovered at Gordion (about 230 km west of Hattusa, still within the broader central Anatolian climate zone). These trees provide an annually resolved dryness record spanning centuries.
The data show a general shift toward drier conditions from the later 13th into the early 12th century BCE.
The standout event was an unusually severe, continuous three-year drought approximately 1198- 1196 BCE (±3 years). This ranks as one of the driest (or the driest) multi-year intervals between 1400 and 1000 BCE.
Narrow tree rings indicate the trees were severely stressed by lack of water; isotope data independently confirm the extreme dryness.
Consequences for Hattusa and the empire:
Near- complete crop failure for three consecutive years would have exhausted grain stores (normally sufficient for one bad year).
Widespread famine, collapse of the agricultural tax base, inability to feed the large standing army, and social unrest.
Hattusa and other key sites show evidence of empty grain depots around this time.
Textual references from the late Hittite period and neighboring regions (e.g., Ugarit) mention famine and grain shortages.
The landlocked nature of the Hittite heartland limited options for importing food on a large scale.
Combined with existing stresses (dynastic conflicts, external pressures from groups such as the Kaska, possible disease, and broader Late Bronze Age disruptions), the drought is widely viewed as a major tipping point that overwhelmed the state’s resilience. Hattusa was methodically abandoned by the royal administration and elites around 1180 BCE (or shortly after), with later burning of the emptied city.
Scholars emphasize that climate was not the sole cause of the empire’s collapse, it interacted with political, economic, military, and social factors in a “perfect storm.”
Single- year droughts were manageable; three consecutive extreme years were not.
This event provides one of the most precisely dated links between climate stress and the fall of a major ancient Near Eastern power.
In summary, Hattusa’s semi- arid highland environment shaped Hittite agriculture, urban planning (including water management features), and ultimately contributed decisively to the empire’s end through a rare, prolonged drought at a critical historical moment.
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