{"id":479785,"date":"2026-10-17T03:17:09","date_gmt":"2026-10-17T10:17:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=479785"},"modified":"2026-10-17T03:17:11","modified_gmt":"2026-10-17T10:17:11","slug":"rodinias-breakup-sparked-snowball-earth-and-earths-second-great-oxygen-rise","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=479785","title":{"rendered":"Rodinia\u2019s Breakup Sparked Snowball Earth and Earth\u2019s Second Great Oxygen Rise"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"723\" height=\"485\" data-attachment-id=\"479786\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?attachment_id=479786\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1168,784\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;c4e977d4-d7d8-4bdb-b88e-b11c3c16abf1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Signature: 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&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"0 Rodinia\u2019s Breakup Sparked Snowball Earth and Earth\u2019s Second Great Oxygen Rise\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"&lt;p&gt;Signature: 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&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?fit=723%2C485&amp;ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?resize=723%2C485&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"A dramatic landscape showcasing the contrast between volcanic activity on one side, featuring erupting flames and smoke, and a serene underwater scene on the other, with clear water, coral reefs, and bubbles beneath a solid ice barrier.\" class=\"wp-image-479786\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?resize=1024%2C687&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?resize=300%2C201&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?resize=768%2C516&amp;ssl=1 768w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?resize=640%2C430&amp;ssl=1 640w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Rodinias-Breakup-Sparked-Snowball-Earth-and-Earths-Second-Great-Oxygen-Rise.jpg?w=1168&amp;ssl=1 1168w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 723px) 100vw, 723px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">AI generated by Grok<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>The Great Oxidation Event (GOE), also known as the Great Oxygenation Event, was a major turning point in Earth\u2019s history that occurred roughly 2.4 to 2.0 billion years ago.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before the GOE, Earth\u2019s atmosphere and oceans were largely <strong>anoxic<\/strong> (almost no free oxygen). Oxygen produced by early photosynthetic microbes (mainly cyanobacteria) was quickly consumed by chemical reactions with reduced materials such as dissolved iron and volcanic gases.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>During the GOE:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Free oxygen (O\u2082) began to accumulate in the atmosphere for the first time in significant amounts.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Atmospheric oxygen levels rose from near- zero to perhaps 0.1- 1% or more of present- day levels (exact values are still debated).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This triggered widespread environmental changes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Key evidence and effects<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Banded iron formations:<\/strong> Distinctive layered rocks of iron oxides that formed when oxygen reacted with dissolved iron in the oceans, causing it to precipitate.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Oxidation of the land surface and oceans.<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Possible global glaciations <\/strong>(including \u201cSnowball Earth\u201d- like events) linked to the removal of methane (a strong greenhouse gas) as oxygen levels rose.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>A major evolutionary filter:<\/strong> many anaerobic organisms were driven to extinction or restricted habitats, while aerobic (oxygen- using) life gained opportunities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Causes<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The primary driver was <strong>oxygenic photosynthesis<\/strong> by cyanobacteria. Additional factors that may have helped oxygen finally <strong>\u201cbreak through\u201d<\/strong> include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Changes in volcanic gas composition<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Burial of organic carbon<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Continental growth and weathering<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Possible contributions from deep- Earth processes (such as the <strong>excess- oxygen<\/strong> release from rising magmas discussed in the recent study)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The GOE was not a single abrupt jump but a prolonged, complex transition with<strong> \u201cwhiffs\u201d of oxygen<\/strong> earlier and further rises later (including the <strong>Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event<\/strong>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It fundamentally transformed Earth from a reducing world into one capable of supporting complex aerobic life, ultimately paving the way for animals and the modern biosphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"723\" height=\"485\" data-attachment-id=\"479723\" data-permalink=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?attachment_id=479723\" data-orig-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&amp;ssl=1\" data-orig-size=\"1168,784\" data-comments-opened=\"1\" data-image-meta=\"{&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;d75ad681-1ee6-4029-89b5-2fdca38ef6dd&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Signature: 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&quot;}\" data-image-title=\"0 The Great Oxidation Event\" data-image-description=\"\" data-image-caption=\"&lt;p&gt;Signature: 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&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-large-file=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?fit=723%2C485&amp;ssl=1\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event-1024x687.jpg?resize=723%2C485&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"A surreal landscape depicting a calm ocean with bubbling formations resembling corals amidst colorful layered rock patterns, contrasted by a fiery volcanic eruption in the background.\" class=\"wp-image-479723\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?resize=1024%2C687&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?resize=300%2C201&amp;ssl=1 300w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?resize=768%2C516&amp;ssl=1 768w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?resize=640%2C430&amp;ssl=1 640w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-The-Great-Oxidation-Event.jpg?w=1168&amp;ssl=1 1168w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 723px) 100vw, 723px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong>The Great Oxidation<\/strong>, AI generated by Grok<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>The <em>Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE)<\/em>, sometimes called the <em>Second Great Oxidation Event<\/em>, was a significant rise in Earth\u2019s atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels that occurred during the Neoproterozoic Era, roughly between <em>850 and 540 million years ago<\/em>.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Timing and context<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It followed a long interval known as the \u201cBoring Billion\u201d (roughly 1.8\u20130.8 billion years ago), when atmospheric oxygen remained very low (typically &lt;0.1% of present atmospheric levels, or PAL).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">During the NOE, oxygen concentrations increased substantially, estimates suggest rising above ~13% PAL in the early Neoproterozoic and possibly reaching as high as ~50% PAL at times during the <strong>Cryogenian interglacial periods<\/strong>. <strong>Oxygen levels<\/strong> remained dynamic and intermediate through the Ediacaran and into the early Paleozoic; truly modern, stable high levels were not reached until later in the Paleozoic.<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neoproterozoic_oxygenation_event\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u2060<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Unlike the earlier <strong>Great Oxidation Event<\/strong> (GOE, ~2.4- 2.0 Ga), which permanently established free oxygen in the atmosphere, the NOE appears more complex, possibly a series of pulses or regional events rather than one single global step.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Evidence<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Geochemical proxies supporting the NOE include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Large positive carbon- isotope (\u03b4\u00b9\u00b3C) excursions <\/strong>indicating increased organic carbon burial (which releases net oxygen).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><em>Extreme negative carbon- isotope excursions <\/em>(e.g., the Shuram- Wonoka event ~580- 550 Ma) interpreted as oxidation of a large dissolved organic carbon pool.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Increases in redox- sensitive trace metals (molybdenum, vanadium, uranium) in black shales.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Changes in sulfur- isotope fractionation and iron speciation data showing progressive (though incomplete) ocean ventilation, from ferruginous (iron-rich anoxic) to more oxic conditions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Other indicators such as chromium isotopes and selenium isotopes.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Causes<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Multiple interacting factors likely contributed:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Enhanced organic carbon burial linked to tectonic activity (breakup of the <strong>supercontinent Rodinia<\/strong> and later assembly of <strong>Gondwana<\/strong>).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Nutrient fluxes from weathering of newly uplifted mountains.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Biological innovations, including the radiation of nitrogen- fixing and planktonic cyanobacteria that boosted primary productivity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Climatic extremes, including the <strong>\u201cSnowball Earth\u201d glaciations (Sturtian and Marinoan)<\/strong>, which may have altered ocean chemistry and nutrient cycling upon melting.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Possible contributions from changes in day length or other planetary factors.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\"><strong>Biological significance<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The rise in oxygen is widely linked to the emergence and diversification of complex multicellular life. It coincided with:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>The appearance of the Ediacaran biota (the first large, soft-bodied multicellular organisms).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The subsequent Cambrian Explosion of animal body plans.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Higher oxygen levels enabled more efficient aerobic metabolism, larger body sizes, and greater mobility, although early animals may have first evolved under still relatively low and fluctuating oxygen conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In summary, the NOE marked a critical transition that helped transform Earth from a predominantly low-oxygen world into one capable of supporting the complex aerobic ecosystems that characterize the <strong>Phanerozoic Eon<\/strong>. Scientific understanding continues to evolve, with some researchers preferring terms such as <strong>\u201cNeoproterozoic Oxygenation Window\u201d<\/strong> to emphasize its pulsed and dynamic nature rather than a single discrete event.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-wp-embed is-provider-climate-science-press wp-block-embed-climate-science-press wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<blockquote class=\"wp-embedded-content\" data-secret=\"GnfNEDsbdb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=441820\">Snowball Earth May Hide a Far Stranger Climate Cycle Than Anyone Expected<\/a><\/blockquote><iframe loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-embedded-content\" sandbox=\"allow-scripts\" security=\"restricted\" style=\"position: absolute; visibility: hidden;\" title=\"\u201cSnowball Earth May Hide a Far Stranger Climate Cycle Than Anyone Expected\u201d \u2014 Climate- Science.press\" src=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=441820&amp;embed=true#?secret=WHD4BNjgUL#?secret=GnfNEDsbdb\" data-secret=\"GnfNEDsbdb\" width=\"600\" height=\"338\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Rodinia, &#8220;Snowball Earth&#8221;, Sturtian glaciation and The Second Great Oxidation Event<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>These terms describe interconnected events in the <em>Neoproterozoic Era<\/em> that dramatically reshaped Earth\u2019s climate, oceans, atmosphere, and life.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Rodinia<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Rodinia <\/strong>was a <strong>supercontinent<\/strong> that assembled roughly <strong>1.3\u2013 0.9 billion years ago<\/strong> and began <strong>breaking apart<\/strong> around <strong>825\u2013750 million years ago<\/strong> (with final stages continuing into the <strong>late Neoproterozoic<\/strong>). It brought most of Earth\u2019s continental crust together, centered roughly around Laurentia (ancestral North America).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Its breakup involved widespread rifting, <strong>large igneous provinces (LIPs)<\/strong>, and the opening of new ocean basins. This tectonic upheaval increased continental weathering, altered nutrient fluxes into the oceans, and changed volcanic CO\u2082 emissions, setting the stage for major climate and chemical shifts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>\u201cSnowball Earth\u201d<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>\u201cSnowball Earth\u201d <\/strong>refers to extreme global glaciations during the <strong>Cryogenian Period (roughly 720- 635 million years ago) <\/strong>in which ice sheets reached the equator and may have covered nearly the entire planet. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Two main episodes are recognized:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Sturtian glaciation<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Marinoan glaciation<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These events were far more severe than any later ice ages. Life survived in limited refugia (possibly under thin ice, in meltwater ponds, or near hydrothermal vents). The <strong>extreme cold<\/strong> was eventually ended by the gradual buildup of <strong>volcanic CO\u2082<\/strong>, which created a <strong>powerful greenhouse effect<\/strong> and triggered <strong>rapid deglaciation<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Sturtian glaciation (~717\u2013658 million years ago)<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This was the first and longest of the <strong>Cryogenian \u201cSnowball Earth\u201d <\/strong>events, lasting about 55- 60 million years.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Likely triggers linked to Rodinia\u2019s breakup include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Weathering of extensive basaltic large igneous provinces (especially the <strong>Franklin LIP ~718 Ma<\/strong>), which drew down atmospheric CO\u2082.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Possible reductions in mid- ocean ridge <strong>volcanic CO\u2082 outgassing<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Paleogeography<\/strong> that enhanced <strong>silicate weathering<\/strong> (continents clustered in low latitudes).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once ice covered most of the planet, the <strong>ice- albedo feedback locked Earth into a frozen state<\/strong> until CO\u2082 levels rose high enough to melt the ice. Cap carbonates (distinctive limestone layers) mark the abrupt end of the glaciation worldwide.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>Second Great Oxidation Event (Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event- NOE)<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Also called the <strong>Second Great Oxidation Event<\/strong>, this was a major rise in atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels between roughly <strong>850 and 540 million years ago<\/strong>, following the<strong> long low- oxygen<\/strong> <strong>\u201cBoring Billion\u201d<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Oxygen<\/strong> increased from very low levels (<strong>&lt;0.1%<\/strong> of present atmospheric levels) to significantly higher values (possibly tens of percent of modern levels at times). It involved pulses rather than a single smooth rise and helped ventilate the deep oceans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-medium-font-size wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Connections to the other events:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Rodinia\u2019s breakup increased nutrient delivery and organic- carbon burial, promoting net oxygen production.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Sturtian (and later Marinoan) Snowball Earth events disrupted carbon cycles; the intense weathering and ocean chemistry changes after deglaciation, plus burial of organic matter, contributed to rising oxygen.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Higher oxygen levels after these upheavals are linked to the appearance of the <strong>Ediacaran biota<\/strong> and the later<strong> Cambrian Explosion of animal life<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>How they fit together<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The breakup of Rodinia \u2192 enhanced weathering and tectonic changes \u2192 triggered or helped sustain the Sturtian glaciation (a major phase of Snowball Earth) \u2192 <strong>extreme climate swings<\/strong> and <strong>carbon- cycle perturbations <\/strong>\u2192 contributed to the Second Great Oxidation Event (Neoproterozoic rise in oxygen).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These linked processes transformed Earth from a relatively stable, low-oxygen world into one with more dynamic climates, higher oxygen, and the environmental conditions that allowed complex multicellular life to diversify.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-wp-embed is-provider-climate-science-press wp-block-embed-climate-science-press wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<blockquote class=\"wp-embedded-content\" data-secret=\"csr6X0zm8Q\"><a href=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=447081\">Subduction on a Cooling Planet Drove the Stepwise Rise of Atmospheric Oxygen<\/a><\/blockquote><iframe loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-embedded-content\" sandbox=\"allow-scripts\" security=\"restricted\" style=\"position: absolute; visibility: hidden;\" title=\"\u201cSubduction on a Cooling Planet Drove the Stepwise Rise of Atmospheric Oxygen\u201d \u2014 Climate- Science.press\" src=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=447081&amp;embed=true#?secret=4bSYYARicg#?secret=csr6X0zm8Q\" data-secret=\"csr6X0zm8Q\" width=\"600\" height=\"338\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-wp-embed is-provider-climate-science-press wp-block-embed-climate-science-press wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<blockquote class=\"wp-embedded-content\" data-secret=\"vUJx6chVEY\"><a href=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=468382\">Salt Crystals May Have Locked Earth in a Deep Freeze 700 Million Years Ago<\/a><\/blockquote><iframe loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-embedded-content\" sandbox=\"allow-scripts\" security=\"restricted\" style=\"position: absolute; visibility: hidden;\" title=\"\u201cSalt Crystals May Have Locked Earth in a Deep Freeze 700 Million Years Ago\u201d \u2014 Climate- Science.press\" src=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=468382&amp;embed=true#?secret=65XAgY1dVN#?secret=vUJx6chVEY\" data-secret=\"vUJx6chVEY\" width=\"600\" height=\"338\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-wp-embed is-provider-climate-science-press wp-block-embed-climate-science-press wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<blockquote class=\"wp-embedded-content\" data-secret=\"3OBoXstpMY\"><a href=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=447125\">Warmer Antarctic Regions Amplify Temperature Shifts More Than Colder Interiors \u2013 Due to Temperature-Dependent Greenhouse Feedbacks<\/a><\/blockquote><iframe loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-embedded-content\" sandbox=\"allow-scripts\" security=\"restricted\" style=\"position: absolute; visibility: hidden;\" title=\"\u201cWarmer Antarctic Regions Amplify Temperature Shifts More Than Colder Interiors \u2013 Due to Temperature-Dependent Greenhouse Feedbacks\u201d \u2014 Climate- Science.press\" src=\"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=447125&amp;embed=true#?secret=4xc54fqUVj#?secret=3OBoXstpMY\" data-secret=\"3OBoXstpMY\" width=\"600\" height=\"338\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\"><\/iframe>\n<\/div><\/figure>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The Great Oxidation Event (GOE), also known as the Great Oxygenation Event, was a major turning point in Earth\u2019s history that occurred roughly 2.4 to 2.0 billion years ago.<\/p>\n<p>The Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event (NOE), sometimes called the Second Great Oxidation Event, was a significant rise in Earth\u2019s atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels that occurred during the Neoproterozoic Era, roughly between 850 and 540 million years ago.<\/p>\n<p>The GOE was not a single abrupt jump but a prolonged, complex transition with \u201cwhiffs\u201d of oxygen earlier and further rises later (including the Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event).<\/p>\n<p>It fundamentally transformed Earth from a reducing world into one capable of supporting complex aerobic life, ultimately paving the way for animals and the modern biosphere.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":121246920,"featured_media":479786,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_coblocks_attr":"","_coblocks_dimensions":"","_coblocks_responsive_height":"","_coblocks_accordion_ie_support":"","advanced_seo_description":"Explore the Great Oxidation Event and its profound impact on Earth\u2019s atmosphere, oceans, and the emergence of complex life. Discover key evidence!","jetpack_seo_html_title":"Understanding the Great Oxidation and Neoproterozoic Events","jetpack_seo_noindex":false,"jetpack_seo_schema_type":"","_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_first_post":false,"_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":false,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[1],"tags":[691846463,691845155,691846458,691846464,691846459,691846467,691846465,691846462,691846466,691842625,691844916,691846460,691846461],"class_list":["post-479785","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-uncategorized","tag-boring-billion","tag-snowball-earth-2","tag-whiffs-of-oxygen","tag-cryogenian-interglacial-periods","tag-excess-oxygen-2","tag-neoproterozoic-era","tag-oxygen-levels","tag-second-great-oxidation-event","tag-shuram-wonoka-event-580-550-ma","tag-sturtian-glaciation-717-658-million-years-ago","tag-supercontinent-rodinia","tag-the-great-oxidation-event-goe","tag-the-neoproterozoic-oxygenation-event-noe","fallback-thumbnail"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/paxLW1-20Ot","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":447081,"url":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=447081","url_meta":{"origin":479785,"position":0},"title":"Subduction on a Cooling Planet Drove the Stepwise Rise of Atmospheric Oxygen","author":"uwe.roland.gross","date":"05\/28\/2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Supercontinent cycles\u2014 the periodic assembly and breakup of Earth's major landmasses\u2014have been linked to oxygenation events through tectonic, erosional, volcanic, and biogeochemical feedback.","rel":"","context":"In \"biogeochemical model (COPSE)\"","block_context":{"text":"biogeochemical model (COPSE)","link":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?tag=biogeochemical-model-copse"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/0-Subduction-on-a-Cooling-Planet-Drove-the-Stepwise-Rise-of-Atmospheric-Oxygen.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/0-Subduction-on-a-Cooling-Planet-Drove-the-Stepwise-Rise-of-Atmospheric-Oxygen.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/0-Subduction-on-a-Cooling-Planet-Drove-the-Stepwise-Rise-of-Atmospheric-Oxygen.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/0-Subduction-on-a-Cooling-Planet-Drove-the-Stepwise-Rise-of-Atmospheric-Oxygen.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/0-Subduction-on-a-Cooling-Planet-Drove-the-Stepwise-Rise-of-Atmospheric-Oxygen.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":479696,"url":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=479696","url_meta":{"origin":479785,"position":1},"title":"Deep Magma\u2019s Hidden Oxygen Cache May Have Helped Turn Earth Blue","author":"uwe.roland.gross","date":"10\/16\/2026","format":false,"excerpt":"A new study shows that silicate magma (molten rock) in Earth\u2019s deep interior can store substantial \u201cexcess oxygen\u201d beyond conventional chemical (stoichiometric) limits, acting like a volatile that is released upon ascent and potentially helping oxidize the shallow Earth and atmosphere. It proposes a previously unrecognized geological mechanism that could\u2026","rel":"","context":"In \"atmospheric oxygen\"","block_context":{"text":"atmospheric oxygen","link":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?tag=atmospheric-oxygen"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Deep-Magmas-Hidden-Oxygen-Cache-May-Have-Helped-Turn-Earth-Blue.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Deep-Magmas-Hidden-Oxygen-Cache-May-Have-Helped-Turn-Earth-Blue.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Deep-Magmas-Hidden-Oxygen-Cache-May-Have-Helped-Turn-Earth-Blue.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Deep-Magmas-Hidden-Oxygen-Cache-May-Have-Helped-Turn-Earth-Blue.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Deep-Magmas-Hidden-Oxygen-Cache-May-Have-Helped-Turn-Earth-Blue.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":479239,"url":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=479239","url_meta":{"origin":479785,"position":2},"title":"Earth\u2019s Mantle Was \u201cBreathing\u201d Oxygen Billion Years Before the Atmosphere","author":"uwe.roland.gross","date":"10\/15\/2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Scientists found evidence that Earth\u2019s mantle was interacting with (and being oxidized by) surface oxygen as early as ~3.4 billion years ago, roughly a billion years before the Great Oxidation Event permanently raised atmospheric oxygen levels around 2.3- 2.2 billion years ago. Sanukitoid petrogenesis refers to the origin and formation\u2026","rel":"","context":"In \"Atmospheric chemistry\"","block_context":{"text":"Atmospheric chemistry","link":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?tag=atmospheric-chemistry"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Earths-Mantle-Was-Breathing-Oxygen-Billion-Years-Before-the-Atmosphere.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Earths-Mantle-Was-Breathing-Oxygen-Billion-Years-Before-the-Atmosphere.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Earths-Mantle-Was-Breathing-Oxygen-Billion-Years-Before-the-Atmosphere.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Earths-Mantle-Was-Breathing-Oxygen-Billion-Years-Before-the-Atmosphere.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/0-Earths-Mantle-Was-Breathing-Oxygen-Billion-Years-Before-the-Atmosphere.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":472946,"url":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=472946","url_meta":{"origin":479785,"position":3},"title":"Ancient Himalayan- Scale Mountains Buried Under Antarctica Helped Fuel the Rise of Complex Life","author":"uwe.roland.gross","date":"09\/22\/2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Gondwanan Super mountains (also called the Gondwana Super- mountains or linked to the earlier term Transgondwanan Super mountain) refer to an enormous network of Himalayan- scale mountain ranges that formed during the assembly of the supercontinent Gondwana roughly 650- 450 million years ago. Researchers analyzed 1,712 detrital zircon grains recovered\u2026","rel":"","context":"In \"Antarctica\"","block_context":{"text":"Antarctica","link":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?tag=antarctica"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/0-Ancient-Himalayan-Scale-Mountains-Buried-Under-Antarctica-Helped-Fuel-the-Rise-of-Complex-Life.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/0-Ancient-Himalayan-Scale-Mountains-Buried-Under-Antarctica-Helped-Fuel-the-Rise-of-Complex-Life.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/0-Ancient-Himalayan-Scale-Mountains-Buried-Under-Antarctica-Helped-Fuel-the-Rise-of-Complex-Life.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/0-Ancient-Himalayan-Scale-Mountains-Buried-Under-Antarctica-Helped-Fuel-the-Rise-of-Complex-Life.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/climatescience.press\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/0-Ancient-Himalayan-Scale-Mountains-Buried-Under-Antarctica-Helped-Fuel-the-Rise-of-Complex-Life.jpg?fit=1168%2C784&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":469963,"url":"https:\/\/climatescience.press\/?p=469963","url_meta":{"origin":479785,"position":4},"title":"Gondwana Was a True Supercontinent\u2014and It Helped Spark the Explosion of Life on Earth","author":"uwe.roland.gross","date":"09\/11\/2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Gondwana (also called Gondwanaland) was a vast southern supercontinent that existed from the late Neoproterozoic through much of the Paleozoic and into the Mesozoic. It is one of the best- documented ancient landmasses in Earth\u2019s history. 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